Tournament: Greenhill Classic | Round: 2 | Opponent: Peninsula JZ | Judge: Jason Sykes

*Democracy 1AC*

I affirm the resolution:
"In a democracy, voting ought to be compulsory."

Limits

Ought is defined as "expectation" or "logical" ~Merriam-Webster~. In context of the resolution, this means that the definition of democracy within this debate round dictates which side wins based on a logical pattern of thinking and how their case meets the burdens of the resolution text.

The Venus Project Foundation defines democracy as…

~The Venus Project Foundation is a nonprofit, tax-exempt art and educational organization under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Donations are tax-deductible as allowed by law. http://www.venusproject.org/keywords/definition-of-true-democracy.html~~

Democracy is a dynamic participatory means of governance. Democracy is a dynamic set of
AND
government are dedicated and watchful investigative journalist and informed vigilant citizens / voters.

Compulsory is defined as "mandatory" or "obligatory" ~Merriam-Webster~.

Framework

There are two levels to the affirmative framing:

One: When evaluating democracies with compulsory voting, we should utilize the standard of upholding participatory democracy, which is the only way to affirm the burdens placed by the wording of the resolution and ensure all the benefits advocated in the 1AC.

Participation is the keystone of a democracy’s foundation; furthermore, citizens must remain active in public life and informed in the field of politics

Stanford University ’04 ~"What Is Democracy?", Lecture at Hilla University for Humanistic Studies: The Role of Citizens In a Democracy, Jan 21, 2004, Accessed Aug 29, 2013, http://www.stanford.edu/~~ldiamond/iraq/WhaIsDemocracy012004.htm~~.

The key role of citizens in a democracy is to participate in public life.¶
AND
law, and tolerant of the different views of other groups and individuals.

Participatory democracy is the best form of democracy of the round because it strengthens and
AND
and those people continue to sufferThus, prefer this form of democracy because:

Participatory democracy allows ordinary citizens to become political beings via democratic politics

Lorenzo Cini 2011 ~Lorenzo Cini is a PhD Candidate in Political and Social Sciences at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy. From his Study "Between Participation and Deliberation: Toward a New Standard for Assessing Democracy?" in July 4-6, 2011; accessible here at: http://www.academia.edu/1369778/Deliberative_and_Participatory_Democracy_Towards_a_New_Model_of_Radical_Democracy-http://www.academia.edu/1369778/Deliberative_and_Participatory_Democracy_Towards_a_New_Model_of_Radical_Democracy~~
Participatory democracy is thus linked to a very strong notion of popular sovereignty, insomuch
AND
with their capacity to become "political beings" (Wolin1996, 31).

AND, the term "ought" from the resolution does not rely on winning
AND
of democracy to be participatory are sufficient for neg to win the round.

Citizens duty to turnout based on respect for the system that produced the law — not the merits of the arguments for compulsion

Dean Machin, University of Warwick, 2011, "Compulsory Turnout: A Compelling (and Contingent) Case," Politics, Vol. 31 (2), p. 105
The central point is that while the basis of the law compelling turnout is the
AND
, then, is not ’parasitic’ on the case for compulsory voting.

Contentions

I. Status quo

 Low voter turnout expresses the need for a compulsory voting system===

Low Turnout Undermines Democratic Legitimacy -General Apathy

Low turnout threatens system legitimacy/demonstrates apathy

T. S. Krishna Murthy, Chief Election Commissioner of India, 2012, "The Relevance of Voting Rights in Modern Democracy," Wake Forest Journal of Law 26 Policy, 2 Wake Forest J. L. 26 Pol’y 337, p. 344
The quality of a modern representative democracy, especially among the emerging democracies, depends
AND
and "negative voting" which can effectively tackle voter indifference and apathy.

The solution to this issue lies in mandating voting to have full participation and adhere to a true democracy – empirical studies have proven this:

Australia demonstrates that compulsory voting increases turnout

Scott Bennett, Parliament of Australia, 2005, Compulsory voting in Australian national elections, Parliamentary Library-Research Brief, October, No. 6, ~http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/library/prspub/06SH6/upload_binary/06sh63.pdf;fileType=application2Fpdf~~23search=22library/prspub/06SH622~~, p. 1
Academic analysis shows that compulsory voting is likely to produce a high turnout of voters
AND
in recent elections such countries have actually experienced a marked decline in turnout. 

Compulsory voting laws increase turnout

Harvard Law Review, 2007, "The Case for Compulsory Voting in the United States," 121 Harv. L. Rev. 591, p. 592
One solution to the problem of low voter turnout is to require all eligible voters
AND
voter turnout than many of the countries that have already adopted compulsory voting.

This loss of valuation to life creates a nothing who can be eradicated without loss, or even thought of loss, because that which is being destroyed is always precluded from value.
Levinson 04 (Brett, Professor of comparative lit at the State University of New York at Binghamton. Market and Thought: Meditations on the Political and Biopolitical. P. 74)
A key to grasping the political import of the withdrawal of the condition ofdisagreement,
AND
meaning).  The loss of discardable life is no loss but a wash.

II. Compulsory voting improves upon democracy

Compulsory voting improves democratic system in many ways

Harvard Law Review, 2007, "The Case for Compulsory Voting in the United States," 121 Harv. L. Rev. 591, p. 596-7
In addition to the direct effect of compulsory voting on turnout, there are also
AND
changes involve their substantive policy positions or the means of communicating those positions.

Compulsion improves democracy both quantitatively and qualitatively

Dean Machin, University of Warwick, 2011, "Compulsory Turnout: A Compelling (and Contingent) Case," Politics, Vol. 31 (2), p. 103
Compulsion may cause political parties to broaden their appeal to citizens who previously were ignored
AND
and preferences of a broader section of a polity’s (eligible) voters.

Whilst the 1AC advocates that compulsory voting betters democracy, it is important to foremost recognize the merits of democracy:

Democracy is the best form of government – multiple reasons

- holds rulers accountable to the people
- institutions prevent abusive rule and corruption
- guarantees human rights   
- stimulates political competition that generates higher quality officials
McFaul 10 (Michael McFaul, Hoover Senior Fellow, professor of polisci and director of the Center on Democracy, Development, and Rule of Law at Stanford and nonresident associate at Carnegie, "Advancing Democracy Abroad," p.  35-37)
First and foremost, democracy provides the best institutional arrangement for holding rulers accountable to
AND
autocracies produces complacency, corruption, and no mechanism for generating new talent. 

Democracy is the best system of governance – solves war, terrorism, and economic growth

Mitchell and Phillips 8 (Lincoln A. Mitchell, Assistant Professor in the Practice of International Politics at Columbia’s School of International and Political Affairs, and David L. Phillips, project director of the National Committee on American Foreign Policy, "Enhancing Democracy Assistance," January 2008, http://www.acus.org/files/publication_pdfs/65/Enhancing20Democracy20Assistance.pdf)
Democracy is both a reflection of American values and in America’s strategic interests. Democracies
AND
governance creates conditions for individuals to fulfill their potential and live better lives.

Tournament: Greenhill Classic | Round: 2 | Opponent: Peninsula JZ | Judge: Jason Sykes

*Democracy 1AC*

I affirm the resolution:
"In a democracy, voting ought to be compulsory."

Limits

Ought is defined as "expectation" or "logical" ~Merriam-Webster~. In context of the resolution, this means that the definition of democracy within this debate round dictates which side wins based on a logical pattern of thinking and how their case meets the burdens of the resolution text.

The Venus Project Foundation defines democracy as…

~The Venus Project Foundation is a nonprofit, tax-exempt art and educational organization under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Donations are tax-deductible as allowed by law. http://www.venusproject.org/keywords/definition-of-true-democracy.html~~

Democracy is a dynamic participatory means of governance. Democracy is a dynamic set of
AND
government are dedicated and watchful investigative journalist and informed vigilant citizens / voters.

Compulsory is defined as "mandatory" or "obligatory" ~Merriam-Webster~.

Framework

There are two levels to the affirmative framing:

One: When evaluating democracies with compulsory voting, we should utilize the standard of upholding participatory democracy, which is the only way to affirm the burdens placed by the wording of the resolution and ensure all the benefits advocated in the 1AC.

Participation is the keystone of a democracy’s foundation; furthermore, citizens must remain active in public life and informed in the field of politics

Stanford University ’04 ~"What Is Democracy?", Lecture at Hilla University for Humanistic Studies: The Role of Citizens In a Democracy, Jan 21, 2004, Accessed Aug 29, 2013, http://www.stanford.edu/~~ldiamond/iraq/WhaIsDemocracy012004.htm~~.

The key role of citizens in a democracy is to participate in public life.¶
AND
law, and tolerant of the different views of other groups and individuals.

Participatory democracy is the best form of democracy of the round because it strengthens and
AND
and those people continue to sufferThus, prefer this form of democracy because:

Participatory democracy allows ordinary citizens to become political beings via democratic politics

Lorenzo Cini 2011 ~Lorenzo Cini is a PhD Candidate in Political and Social Sciences at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy. From his Study "Between Participation and Deliberation: Toward a New Standard for Assessing Democracy?" in July 4-6, 2011; accessible here at: http://www.academia.edu/1369778/Deliberative_and_Participatory_Democracy_Towards_a_New_Model_of_Radical_Democracy-http://www.academia.edu/1369778/Deliberative_and_Participatory_Democracy_Towards_a_New_Model_of_Radical_Democracy~~
Participatory democracy is thus linked to a very strong notion of popular sovereignty, insomuch
AND
with their capacity to become "political beings" (Wolin1996, 31).

AND, the term "ought" from the resolution does not rely on winning
AND
of democracy to be participatory are sufficient for neg to win the round.

Citizens duty to turnout based on respect for the system that produced the law — not the merits of the arguments for compulsion

Dean Machin, University of Warwick, 2011, "Compulsory Turnout: A Compelling (and Contingent) Case," Politics, Vol. 31 (2), p. 105
The central point is that while the basis of the law compelling turnout is the
AND
, then, is not ’parasitic’ on the case for compulsory voting.

Contentions

I. Status quo

 Low voter turnout expresses the need for a compulsory voting system===

Low Turnout Undermines Democratic Legitimacy -General Apathy

Low turnout threatens system legitimacy/demonstrates apathy

T. S. Krishna Murthy, Chief Election Commissioner of India, 2012, "The Relevance of Voting Rights in Modern Democracy," Wake Forest Journal of Law 26 Policy, 2 Wake Forest J. L. 26 Pol’y 337, p. 344
The quality of a modern representative democracy, especially among the emerging democracies, depends
AND
and "negative voting" which can effectively tackle voter indifference and apathy.

The solution to this issue lies in mandating voting to have full participation and adhere to a true democracy – empirical studies have proven this:

Australia demonstrates that compulsory voting increases turnout

Scott Bennett, Parliament of Australia, 2005, Compulsory voting in Australian national elections, Parliamentary Library-Research Brief, October, No. 6, ~http://parlinfo.aph.gov.au/parlInfo/download/library/prspub/06SH6/upload_binary/06sh63.pdf;fileType=application2Fpdf~~23search=22library/prspub/06SH622~~, p. 1
Academic analysis shows that compulsory voting is likely to produce a high turnout of voters
AND
in recent elections such countries have actually experienced a marked decline in turnout. 

Compulsory voting laws increase turnout

Harvard Law Review, 2007, "The Case for Compulsory Voting in the United States," 121 Harv. L. Rev. 591, p. 592
One solution to the problem of low voter turnout is to require all eligible voters
AND
voter turnout than many of the countries that have already adopted compulsory voting.

This loss of valuation to life creates a nothing who can be eradicated without loss, or even thought of loss, because that which is being destroyed is always precluded from value.
Levinson 04 (Brett, Professor of comparative lit at the State University of New York at Binghamton. Market and Thought: Meditations on the Political and Biopolitical. P. 74)
A key to grasping the political import of the withdrawal of the condition ofdisagreement,
AND
meaning).  The loss of discardable life is no loss but a wash.

II. Compulsory voting improves upon democracy

Compulsory voting improves democratic system in many ways

Harvard Law Review, 2007, "The Case for Compulsory Voting in the United States," 121 Harv. L. Rev. 591, p. 596-7
In addition to the direct effect of compulsory voting on turnout, there are also
AND
changes involve their substantive policy positions or the means of communicating those positions.

Compulsion improves democracy both quantitatively and qualitatively

Dean Machin, University of Warwick, 2011, "Compulsory Turnout: A Compelling (and Contingent) Case," Politics, Vol. 31 (2), p. 103
Compulsion may cause political parties to broaden their appeal to citizens who previously were ignored
AND
and preferences of a broader section of a polity’s (eligible) voters.

Whilst the 1AC advocates that compulsory voting betters democracy, it is important to foremost recognize the merits of democracy:

Democracy is the best form of government – multiple reasons

- holds rulers accountable to the people
- institutions prevent abusive rule and corruption
- guarantees human rights   
- stimulates political competition that generates higher quality officials
McFaul 10 (Michael McFaul, Hoover Senior Fellow, professor of polisci and director of the Center on Democracy, Development, and Rule of Law at Stanford and nonresident associate at Carnegie, "Advancing Democracy Abroad," p.  35-37)
First and foremost, democracy provides the best institutional arrangement for holding rulers accountable to
AND
autocracies produces complacency, corruption, and no mechanism for generating new talent. 

Democracy is the best system of governance – solves war, terrorism, and economic growth

Mitchell and Phillips 8 (Lincoln A. Mitchell, Assistant Professor in the Practice of International Politics at Columbia’s School of International and Political Affairs, and David L. Phillips, project director of the National Committee on American Foreign Policy, "Enhancing Democracy Assistance," January 2008, http://www.acus.org/files/publication_pdfs/65/Enhancing20Democracy20Assistance.pdf)
Democracy is both a reflection of American values and in America’s strategic interests. Democracies
AND
governance creates conditions for individuals to fulfill their potential and live better lives.

Tournament: Greenhill Classic | Round: 3 | Opponent: Brentwood MR | Judge: Paige McKenzie

*Citizenship 1AC*

Part One: Plan

Plan Text

Resolved: The United States federal government should establish compulsory voting for all permanent residents within its borders, regardless of citizenship status.

I reserve the right to clarify so do not grant any theory violations unless my opponent checks in CX.

Justification

A framework centered around plans is the best form of debate for a couple reasons:

First, a plan narrows the broad and expansive reach of the resolution to a
AND
improves their ability to become emotionally invested and engaged in the arguments presented.

Secondly, the plan identifies an agent for the resolutional action. This furthermore limits the debate to a particular democracy in order to establish a better round in context of the resolution’s real-world implementation. Specifically, the United States’ federal government has been identified as the agent of the plan.

Limits

The following definitions are provided by Merriam-Webster.

Ought is defined as "expectation" or "logical". In context of the resolution, this means that according to how the affirmative defines a democracy, it logically should operate under the prescribed burdens of the wording of the resolution (that is, it definitionally should be compulsory).

Democracy is defined as…

Compulsory is defined as "mandatory" or "obligatory".

Framework

There are two levels to the affirmative framing:

When evaluating the desirability of policy options, we should utilize the standard of upholding participatory democracy, which is the only way to affirm the burdens placed by the wording of the resolution and ensure all the net benefits of the affirmative plan.

Participatory democracy is the best form of democracy of the round because it strengthens and
AND
and quality of life. Thus, prefer this form of democracy because:

Participatory democracy allows ordinary citizens to become political beings via democratic politics

Lorenzo Cini 2011 ~Lorenzo Cini is a PhD Candidate in Political and Social Sciences at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy. From his Study "Between Participation and Deliberation: Toward a New Standard for Assessing Democracy?" in July 4-6, 2011; accessible here at: http://www.academia.edu/1369778/Deliberative_and_Participatory_Democracy_Towards_a_New_Model_of_Radical_Democracy-http://www.academia.edu/1369778/Deliberative_and_Participatory_Democracy_Towards_a_New_Model_of_Radical_Democracy~~
Participatory democracy is thus linked to a very strong notion of popular sovereignty, insomuch
AND
with their capacity to become "political beings" (Wolin1996, 31).

And if the affirmative reads a plan text, the negative must defend either the
AND
the debaters in this room get their hands on the levers of power. 

When evaluating the morality of an action, an action is morally permissible if it maximizes the value of rational beings by promoting the conditions necessary for their existence.

David Cummiskey, "Kantian Consequentialism," Ethics, vol. 100, no. 3, (apr. 1990).
"In the next section, I will defend this interpretation of the duty of
AND
rational beings, then equal consideration dictates that one sacrifice to save many.

And when evaluating impacts, a plan-focused debate allows for the best framework.

Patrick Speice and Jim Lyle 2003 "traditional policy debate: now more than ever" Oceans Policy Adrift http://www.wfu.edu/Student-organizations/debate/MiscSites/DRGArticles/SpeiceLyle2003htm.htm

While some criticize the cost-benefit analysis method of evaluating a debate as subjective
AND
life is more important than acting morally, the plan would be endorsed.

Harms

Low voter turnout rates are conventional throughout the entire United States – this renders the results of elections moot as they do not truly reflect the rule of the majority, which defeats the purpose of a democratic ruling system

Messler ’13 ~Danielle, Political Science, "Compulsory Voting in the United States?", Northeastern University Political Review, Published Jan 3, 2013, Accessed Aug 21, http://www.nupoliticalreview.com/?p=1952~~

In the 2012 presidential election, only 56.8 of the eligible voting
AND
voting should be required to uphold our legislative and executive branches as well.¶

Low voter turnout is the manifestation of inherent problems with our current democratic system of
AND
sanctity of lives of not just non-citizens but citizens as well.
This loss of valuation to life creates a nothing who can be eradicated without loss, or even thought of loss, because that which is being destroyed is always precluded from value.
Levinson 04 (Brett, Professor of comparative lit at the State University of New York at Binghamton. Market and Thought: Meditations on the Political and Biopolitical. P. 74)
A key to grasping the political import of the withdrawal of the condition ofdisagreement,
AND
meaning).  The loss of discardable life is no loss but a wash.

Impact: There is literally no purpose to a democratic voting system if it does
AND
people to vote, and thus upholding the textual burdens of the resolution.

Solvency

A plethora of countries already offer the right to vote to non-citizens – it is unconstitutional for law-abiding tax-payers to not receive representation in how they are governed

Spiro ’13 ~Peter Spiro is the Charles Weiner professor of law at Temple University’s Beasley School of Law. He is a former law clerk to Justice David Souter of the U.S. Supreme Court. "Noncitizen Voting Makes Sense. Why Don’t Liberals Agree?", Bloomberg, Published Jun 19, 2013, Accessed Aug 22, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-06-19/noncitizen-voting-makes-sense-why-don-t-liberals-agree-.html~~

A Supreme Court ruling this week confirmed federal supremacy over U.S. voter
AND
citizenship, local voting: an idea that even Scalia can live with.

Australia is a democratic country that has successfully implemented compulsory voting and boosted voter turnout

Orszag ’12 ~Peter Orszag is vice chairman of global banking at Citigroup Inc. and a former director of the Office of Management and Budget in the Obama administration. The opinions expressed are his own. "Make Voting Mandatory", Bloomberg, Published Jun 19, 2012, Accessed Aug 22, 2013, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-06-19/voting-should-be-mandatory.html~~

The U.S. prides itself as the beacon of democracy, but it’s
AND
first president in history to be elected by a majority of American adults.

Advantages

Politics

New York City is the largest among various cities currently discussing legislation to allow non-citizens to vote – this shows genuine interest in progress on the movement in policy-making

Walker ’13 ~Hunter Walker is a national affairs reporter for TPM. He came to the site in 2013 from the New York Observer. He has also written for New York Magazine, Gawker, the Village Voice, Forbes, The Daily, and Deadspin. "NYC Considering Allowing Non-Citizens To Vote", TPM/Talking Points Memo DC, Published May 9, 2013, Accessed Aug 22, http://tpmdc.talkingpointsmemo.com/2013/05/nyc-council-law-allowing-immigrants-to-vote.php~~

New York City could soon become the first major city in the country to give
AND
about the whole business of the role of immigrants in the United States."

Impact: One of the biggest cities in the world agreeing that a political solution must be enacted to end voter disenfranchisement is a blatantly obvious indicator that reform needs to occur in terms of the current voting system. Policy-makers already being onboard with the plan demonstrates its popularity in the status quo.

Ends voter disenfranchisement

Various groups, particularly Latinos, are currently denied voting rights due to their non-citizenship

Advancement Project is a next generation, multi-racial civil rights organization. Rooted in the great human rights struggles for equality and justice, we exist to fulfill America’s promise of a caring, inclusive and just democracy. We use innovative tools and strategies to strengthen social movements and achieve high impact policy change. "Segregating American Leadership: Latino Voter Disenfranchisement in 2012", Published Sep 21, 2012, Accessed Aug 22, 2013, http://www.advancementproject.org/resources/entry/segregating-american-citizenship-latino-voter-disenfranchisement-in-2012

The Latino community is a large
AND
and participation by Latino citizens.

Impact: In the status quo colossal numbers of foreign/immigrant residents in the
AND
only method of perpetuating true democracy and sincerely represented the majority of America.

Thank you.

Tournament: Greenhill Classic | Round: 1 | Opponent: Southlake Caroll DP | Judge: Catherine Tarsney

1NC

I negate the resolution:
"In a democracy, voting ought to be compulsory."

Limits

All definitions are derived from Merriam-Webster Dictionary:
Ought is defined as "obligation".

Democracy is defined as "the common people especially when constituting the source of political authority".

Compulsory is defined as "mandatory" or "obligatory."

Framework

The standard that must be used to evaluate the round is disestablishing class inequality.
AND
be a step in the wrong direction as you only further this madness.

Contention One: Interpassivity

There is a specter haunting the politics of the 1AC: the specter of capitalism. Despite their proclamations of radical resistance, the affirmative is trading in the politics of Interpassivity, currently exhibited in democracies, where all their frenetic energy serves as an ideological screen to allow the logic of capital to remain unchallenged.

Zizek 02—Professor of Philosophy @ Institute for Sociology, Ljubljana ~Slavoj, "Revolution at the Gates", pg 167-172~

The problem lies in the further implicit qualifications which can easily be discerned by a
AND
normal accepted meaning, multiculturalism perfectly fits the logic of the global market.

The rhetoric of democracy sets up a false choice between fundamentalism and democracy that ensures the struggle against capitalism will fail.

Dean 05- Prof. of Political Science @ Hobart and William Smith Colleges, Ph.D from Columbia
(Jodi, "Zizek Against Democracy", http://tinyurl.com/llnbtt)
Finally, in his recent work, Zizek names the limit to current thinking "
AND
from elections—we have instead a democratic fundamentalism that renders change unthinkable.

Impacts

Capitalism causes global wars, environmental destruction, and poverty – Constant drive for accumulation makes global economic collapse inevitable

Robinson 06 Professor of Sociology at the University of California, Santa Barbara (William I., Critical Globalization Studies, Chapter 2, "Critical Globalization Studies", ed by R Richard P Appelbaum, http://www.soc.ucsb.edu/faculty/robinson/Assets/pdf/crit_glob.pdf SW) 
We are living in troubling times. The system of global capitalism that now engulfs
AND
political economists concur that a global economic collapse is possible, even probable. 

Capitalism creates an urban underclass – the impact is complete dehumanization and alienation of minorities from society and only the alt solves

Wilson 10 (Carter, professor of political science at the University of Toledo, The Dominant Class and the Construction of Racial Oppression: A Neo-Marxist/Gramscian Approach to Race in the United States, Google Scholars)  

In the final analysis, several additional points need to be made about a neo
AND
classes. This approach offers a deeper and richer analysis of contemporary racism.

Capitalism means that the needs of private enterprise will be positioned above the people—making democracy increasingly impossible.

Kovel 2 Professor of Social Studies at Bard College
Joel, The Enemy of Nature, p. 74-76)
Global capitalism exists along a continuum extending from the good grey Alan Greenspan and his
AND
political contradiction of our time, and drives the present surge of resistance.

Alternatives

Alternative text: Reject the affirmative as a means of refusing complicity with capitalism. Rejecting capitalism is key to opening up new alternatives.  Only complete refusal, not piecemeal reform, can prevent otherwise inevitable slavery and extinction.

Herod, 04 (James, http://site.www.umb.edu/faculty/salzman_g/Strate/GetFre/4thEd/4-index.htm, Getting Free, 4th Edition, A sketch of an association of democratic, autonomous neighborhoods and how to create it, Fourth Edition, January 2004

It is time to try to describe, at first abstractly and later concretely,
AND
. Otherwise we are doomed to perpetual slavery and possibly even to extinction.

Now onto the AC: