Tournament: NSD Camp Tournament 2014 | Round: 1 | Opponent: - | Judge: -
Plan Text: Resolved: The USFG will pass the ‘Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act of 2014’, HR 40. Funding through normal means. NAACP '14 clarifies the advocacy:  
National Association for the Slavery Reparations Study Legislation, H.R. 40, Now Pending In The 113th Congress”. May 28, 2014. AS 7/21/14
Congressman John Conyers...recognition and equality.

Thus, the standard is rule consequentialism.

Plan Text: Resolved: The USFG will implement a Reparations Superfund. Fiat solves the link to legal violations- the USFG would amend current statutes to allow for the implementation of the aff. Berry ’14 clarifies the advocacy:
Mary Frances Berry, Former Chairwoman of US Commission on Civil Rights. Professor of American Social Thought and Professor of History at UPenn. "We Need a 'Reparations Superfund'". New York Times. June 9, 2014.

Thus, the standard is maintaining discursive inclusion.

Tournament: NSD Camp Tournament 2014 | Round: 2 | Opponent: - | Judge: -
The nature of argumentation and discourse demands principles of non-aggression. Kinsella ’96:
N. Stephan Kinsella, University of London; J.D., M.S., B.S., Louisiana State University. “New Rationalist Directions In Libertarian Rights Theory”. 1996. AS 7/21/14
The first rationalist...force against others.

Moral norms are achieved through intersubjective deliberation. Habermas ’98:
Jürgen Habermas, “Truth and Justification”. Studies in Contemporary German Social Thought. 2003. AS 7/21/14
This performatively established...understandings and actions.

Discursive participation requires the standard since the structure of argumentation requires inclusion and justification to others through reasons. Williams 1:
Samuel Williams, Doctorate in Philosophy @ Michigan State University. “FROM OPPRESSION TO DEMOCRACY: AN ARGUMENT FOR REPARATIONS FOR AFRICAN AMERICANS FROM A DISCOURSE ETHICS PERSPECTIVE”. 2011. AS 7/21/14
This implies that...benefit of everyone.

Recognition of the right to have a say in policies that affect one is the reason the governments ought to have power. Flynn:
Jeffrey Flynn, “Communicative Power in Habermas’s Theory of Democracy”. European Journal of Political Theory. AS 7/21/14
In the medium...for democratic legitimacy. 

Reparations are defined as:
Samantha Leanne Diaz, Seton Hall University. “Race-Conscious Remedies in the Criminal Justice”. May 1, 2014. AS 7/21/14
What are reparations?...harms are continuing.

Plan Text: Resolved: The USFG will pass the ‘Commission to Study Reparation Proposals for African-Americans Act of 2014’, HR 40. Funding through normal means. NAACP ’14 clarifies the advocacy:
Congressman John Conyers...recognition and equality.

Black Americans want the plan but they don’t believe in the system to implement the reparations. Coates  ‘14:
Ta-Nehisi Coates, National Correspondent at The Atlantic. “The Case for Reparations” The Atlantic. May 21, 2014. AS 7/27/14
A country curious...very long time. 

Commitee-premised reconciliations intend to open avenues for discussions and apologies. Williams  4:
A reparative program...be universally accepted.

Re-establishing a space for the oppressed to participate in political discourse and discuss reparations recognizes them as individuals. Williams  5:
III. Conclusion – The...rules of argumentation

Current injustices are based on an incorrect framing of past history, and questioning the assumptions of the system will reform legislation for the future. Brophy  ‘06:
Alfred L. Brophy, “Reconsidering Reparations”. Indiana Law Journal, Volume 81, Issue 3, Article 1. 2006. AS 7/21/14
Each of those...territory of injustice.

Tournament: Columbia Invitational | Round: 2 | Opponent: - | Judge: -

A. INTERPRETATION:

 Debaters must disclose all broken cases (ACs, NCs, DAs, CPs, and kritiks) on the NDCA wiki under their own name. In this disclosure, they must post cites, tags, and first three and last three words of all cards read. Debaters may begin disclosing at any point during the season, but they must disclose all broken cases at least an hour before this round in order to meet my interp. They must disclose regardless of whether the tournament requires disclosure. 

1. Clash
   2. Strat Skew
   3. Academic Integrity 

D. Fairness/Education
Drop debater.
No RVI's.

Tournament: Harvard Invitational | Round: 6 | Opponent: - | Judge: -

Flashing Lights AC

My advocacy is that developing countries in Africa should prioritize environmental protection over resource extraction when the two are in conflict.

Prioritizing environmental protection over resource extraction is key to solving African wars. 

UNEP 1

~United Nations Environment Programme, 2009. "From Con?ict to Peacebuilding: The Role of Natural Resources and the Environment"~
Since 1990 at least eighteen violent conflicts have been fuelled by the exploitation of natural
AND
interests and broadening cooperation between divided groups, as well as between states.

TWO SPECIFIC WARRANTS

1. Extraction fuels conflicts over control of valuable resources

UNEP 2

~United Nations Environment Programme, 2009. "From Con?ict to Peacebuilding: The Role of Natural Resources and the Environment"~
Many countries currently face development challenges relating to the unsustainable use of natural resources and
AND
highlights the need for more effective investment in environmental and natural resource governance.

2. Resource extraction provides the funds to finance wars.

UNEP 3

~United Nations Environment Programme, 2009. "From Con?ict to Peacebuilding: The Role of Natural Resources and the Environment"~
Regardless of whether or not natural resources play a causal role in the onset of
AND
purely political activity, with violence resulting less from grievance than from greed.

CONTENTION ONE IS TERRORISM

Oil is exacerbating South Sudan conflict now, risking civil war. 

DOKI 13

Charlton Doki and Jason Straziuso (staff writers). "South Sudan conflict spreading ’rapidly.’" Associated Press. December 21st, 2013. http://www.stuff.co.nz/world/africa/9543459/South-Sudan-conflict-spreading-rapidly**
Armed rebels are said to be in control of some of South Sudan’s oil fields
AND
country’s No. 2 political position earlier this year had stoked ethnic tensions. 

South Sudan civil war increases terrorism.

SMITH 13

~AllAfrica.com. "South Sudan Fighting Endangers Many." Press Release from the Office of Rep. Chris Smith, US Congress. December 24th, 2013. http://allafrica.com/stories/201312240126.html~~**
Washington, DC — The expanding fighting in the Republic of South Sudan has killed
AND
African Republic continuing to be adversely affected by their militant and terroristic actions. 

Africa resource extraction independently fuels al Qaeda influence and Africa is key.

DEHEZ 5

~Dustin, spokesmen on Defense of the CDU/CSU in the German parliament, Senior Research Fellow at the Düsseldorf Institute for Foreign and Security Policy and the Institute’s Director for North-East African Studies, research focuses on the Horn of Africa, Military in Africa) "Why Africa matters: Terrorism in Africa - the forgotten continent once more?" World Security Network Foundation Dec 14~
One of the reasons why Africa deserves international attention ~for~ is actually the
AND
yet allocated the necessary financial support nor have they increased their diplomatic activity. 

The likelihood of a nuclear terror attack is extremely high

BUNN 7

~Matthew Bunn, senior research director @ Harvard, Nuclear Threat Initiative, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/24/AR2007092401154.html~~**
Yes. Unfortunately, terrorist use of a nuclear bomb is a very real danger
AND
government studies have repeatedly concluded that this possibility also cannot be ruled out. 

Terrorism is the most likely existential threat. 

RHODES 9

~Richard Rhodes, Visiting Scholar at Harvard/MIT, Affiliate of the center for International Security at Stanford. "Reducing the nuclear threat: The argument for public safety". December 14th, 2009. AS 7/4/13~
This group of 85 experts judged that the possibility of a WMD attack against a
AND
nothing to do with those attacks in the name of sending a message. 

SUBPOINT B IS POVERTY
African conflicts result in poverty.

HOEFFLER 08

~Anke Hoeffler, Centre for the Study of African Economies University of Oxford "Dealing with the Consequences of Violent Conflicts in Africa" African Development Bank Report 2008~
Both categories contain very diverse countries. Of the 38 countries in the ’peace’
AND
Angola and Chad recently experienced growth rates well in excess of 10 percent. 

Poverty causes structural violence that kills millions per year.

GILLIGAN 96

~James Gilligan (Professor of Psychiatry at Harvard Medical and Director of the Center for the Study of Violence). "Violence: Our Deadly Epidemic and Its Causes," p191-196~
The 14 to 18 million deaths a year caused by structural violence compare with about
AND
for they are inextricably related to each other, as cause to effect.

Poverty and conflict create state failure.

CILLERS 13

~Jakkie Cilliers and Julia Schünemann Institute for Security Studies, Dr Jakkie Cilliers is the executive director and co-founder of the Institute for Security Studies. Dr Julia Schünemann is a senior researcher at the Institute for Security Studies, where she leads the African Futures Project "The future of intrastate conflict in Africa More violence or greater peace?" May 2013.~
The spillover or bad-neighbourhood effect is a sixth consideration. Being situated in
AND
regime type, infant mortality, bad neighbourhood and state-led discrimination.

Weak and failing states create nuclear proliferation and regional instability. 

WYLER 08

~Liana Sun Wyler, August 28, 2008 Analyst in International Crime and Narcotics Foreign Affairs, Defense, and Trade Division. "Weak and Failing States: Evolving Security Threats and U.S. Policy" Congressional Research Service~
Weapons Proliferation. Weak and failing states, unable or unwilling to guarantee the security
AND
"enormous cost in resources and time" to the United States.26

That risks extinction

KATEB 92

~George, 1992 The Inner Ocean: Individualism and Democratic Culture, "Thinking About Human Extinction (1): Nuclear Weapons and Individual Rights," p. 111-112~
Schell’s work attempts to force on us an acknowledgment that sounds far-fetched and
AND
the form of escalation, can be counted on to seek expression later. 

The standard is minimizing expected suffering. 

1. Epistemology is constrained by the badness of pain.

NAGEL 89

~Thomas Nagel, University Professor of Philosophy and Law at New York University, The View From Nowhere, Book, http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~~uctytho/dfwVariousNagel.htm, 1989~
I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain bad,
AND
such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here.
Only utilitarianism accounts for this and aggregates everyone’s subjective experiences; deontologists don’t regard pain as normatively valuable, only duties and intentions.

2. Competing violations of an ethical framework collapses to consequentialism, regardless of whether we can weigh those violations, since conflicting duties prove a conceptual flaw in their moral framework – if it cannot judge an action, then the framework itself is nonfunctional and so we resort to the AC framework.

3. Moral uncertainty means we default to preventing extinction.

BOSTROM 11

(2011) Nick Bostrom, Future of Humanity Institute, Oxford Martin School 26 Faculty of Philosophy
These reflections on moral uncertainty suggest~s~ an alternative, complementary way of
AND
of value. To do this, we must prevent any existential catastrophe.    

4. The use of "should" in the resolution implies the debate is solely about policies established by governmental means.

ERICSON

~Jon M. Ericson, Dean Emeritus of the College of Liberal Arts @ Caltech. "The Debaters Guide". Third Edition, p. 4. AS 12/22/13~
The Proposition of Policy: Urging Future Action In policy propositions, each topic contains
AND
compelling reasons for an audience to perform the future action that you propose.

Util is the only moral system available to policy-makers.

GOODIN 90

~Robert Goodin, Philosophy Fellow @ The Australian National Defense University. "THE UTILITARIAN RESPONSE", 1990, p. 141-2. AS 11/4/13~
My larger argument turns on the proposition that there is something special about the situation
AND
want to use it at all – to chose general rules or conduct.
And, prefer agent-specific justifications because different actors have different obligations. For example, it is immoral for a citizen to cut someone up, but it is the obligation of a surgeon.

5. the resolution is a question of comparing worlds; the resolution is a statement that divides ground between the aff and neg worlds, not the object of evaluation. Truth-testing prescribes an absolute, unmeetable burden to the aff and gives the neg infinite ground.

NELSON 08

~Adam F. Nelson, J.D.1. Towards a Comprehensive Theory of Lincoln-Douglas Debate. 2008.~
And the truth-statement model of the resolution imposes an absolute burden of proof
AND
much smaller range of options: advocacy of the resolution as a whole.

Tournament: Columbia Invitational | Round: 3 | Opponent: - | Judge: -
-

Tournament: Columbia Invitational | Round: 1 | Opponent: - | Judge: -

YASUNI 1AC

I affirm. OVERVIEW: SEC 12 defines resource extraction as:

• • ~US Security and Exchange Commission, 2012 "Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers," http://www.sec.gov/info/smallbus/secg/resource-extraction-small-entity-compliance-guide.htm. AS~
    To determine whether it meets the definition of "resource extraction issuer," an issuer
    AND
    not intended to capture activities that are ancillary or preparatory to commercial development.

I value morality. The standard is maximizing expected well-being.

1. "Should" implies policies.

ERICSON

~Jon M. Ericson, Dean Emeritus of the College of Liberal Arts @ Caltech. "The Debaters Guide". Third Edition, p. 4. AS 12/22/13~
The Proposition of Policy: Urging Future Action In policy propositions, each topic contains
AND
compelling reasons for an audience to perform the future action that you propose.

Policy-making entails util. 

WOLLER

~Gary Woller, "An Overview by Gary Woller". A Forum on the Role of Environmental Ethics. pp. 10. AS 12/5/13~
Appeals to a priori moral principles, such as environmental preservation, also often fail
AND
though perhaps at times a necessary, basis for public policy in a democracy

2. Morality is constrained by naturalism.

PAPINEAU

~David Papineau, Professor of Philosophy of Science in the Department of Philosophy @ King’s College London. "Naturalism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP). http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism**. AS 1/8/14~
G.E. Moore’s famous ’open question’ argument is designed to show that
AND
would inevitably commit us to the absurdity of strong overdetermination. ~11~

Pleasure bad, pain good.

NAGEL

~Thomas Nagel, Law 26 Philosophy Professor @ NYU. "The View From Nowhere". 1989. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~~. AS 7/22/13~
I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain ~is
AND
such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here.

3. Obligations of state are util..

KENNAN

~George Kennan, Professor Emeritus @ Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. "Morality and Foreign Policy". Foreign Affairs, Volume 64 No. 2. pp. 205-218. 1985. AS 1/1/14~
Second, let us recognize that the functions, commitments and moral obligations of governments
AND
need it accept any moral reproach for acting on the basis of them.

4. Competing violations collapse to consequentialism.

MY ADVOCACY
Is that the Republic of Ecuador and the Republic of Peru will ban commercial drilling in Yasuni. Fiat solves the link to legal violations. I am willing to alter or clarify any parts of my advocacy so no theory or T violations unless they check in CX.

WARNAR 1 clarifies the advocacy.

~Lavinia Warnars, Master Thesis in Social and Political Sciences of the Environment @ Radboud University. "The Yasuni-ITT Initiative: An International Environmental Equity Mechanism?". January 2010. http://www.mdgfund.org/sites/default/files/ENV_STUDY_Ecu_the20Yasuni20ITT20initiative_0.pdf. AS 1/11/14~
Ecuadorian President Rafael Correa announced to the United Nations in New York in September,
AND
will target the poorest and most marginalized sectors and contribute to sustainable employment.

SCENARIO ONE IS BIODIVERSITY
A. Proposed oil drilling is the biggest threat to the most biodiverse area in the world.

CLIPPARD 10

~Lee Clippard, Peter English, Matt Finer. "Scientists Identify Ecuador’s Yasuní National Park As One of Most Biodiverse Places on Earth". Jan. 19, 2010. http://www.utexas.edu/news/2010/01/19/ecuador_biodiversity/. DDA~
AUSTIN, Texas — A team of scientists has documented that Yasuní National Park,
AND
rainforest conditions as climate change-induced drought intensifies in the eastern Amazon."

B. The plan prevents deforestation and the loss of biodiversity. 

WARNAR 2

~Lavinia Warnars, Master Thesis in Social and Political Sciences of the Environment @ Radboud University. "The Yasuni-ITT Initiative: An International Environmental Equity Mechanism?". January 2010. http://www.mdgfund.org/sites/default/files/ENV_STUDY_Ecu_the20Yasuni20ITT20initiative_0.pdf. AS 1/11/14~
It protects biodiversity and indigenous peoples: Biodiversity  loss  is  prevented  by  guaranteeing  the  protection  
AND
The  studies  may  entail  a  strategy  to  maintain  biodiversity  and  protect indigenous peoples.

C. Biodiversity loss causes extinction.
HOWARD 11
~Howard, Lead of the Ecosystem Service and Poverty Alleviation Project @ Wageningen University Dept. of Social Sciences. "Tipping Points and Biodiversity Change: Consequences for Human Wellbeing and Challenges for Science and Policy". March 2011. AS 1/20/14 s/o to AT3~
In the 20 th century, we became aware that the fate of biodiversity and
AND
areas in re-sponse to climate change (Lovejoy 26 Hannah 2005).

MOREOVER, disease prolif causes extinction.

BUTLER 04

~Rhett Butler, "Impact of Deforestation—Species Loss, Extinction, and Disease". http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0904.htm. 2004. AS 1/20/14~
The emergence of tropical diseases and outbreaks of new diseases, including nasty hemorrhagic fevers
AND
can unknowingly carry the pathogen home to their native countries around the world.

SCENARIO TWO IS CLIMATE CHANGE

A. Plan solves warming.

WARNAR 3

~Lavinia Warnars, Master Thesis in Social and Political Sciences of the Environment @ Radboud University. "The Yasuni-ITT Initiative: An International Environmental Equity Mechanism?". January 2010. http://www.mdgfund.org/sites/default/files/ENV_STUDY_Ecu_the20Yasuni20ITT20initiative_0.pdf. AS 1/11/14~
It reduces CO2 emissions: It combats global warming as it ~the plan~
AND
.T.), or is equivalent to Ecuadors own emissions for 13 years.

B. Warming causes famine, disease, and resource wars – empirically proven, and it’s systemic. 

LEAN 2

~Geoffrey Lean, Environment Editor for The Independent. "Wars of the World: How Global Warming Puts 60 Nations At Risk". http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/wars-of-the-world-how-global-warming-puts-60-nations-at-risk-442788.html. AS 1/11/14~
Scores of countries face war for scarce land, food and water as global warming
AND
our environment, but as an immediate threat to our security and prosperity".

Food crises and starvation trigger global wars.

HUME 08

~Stephen Hume, Senior Writer for the Vancouver Sun. "World Food Crisis Threatens Rich Nations (That’s Us), Too". Vancouver Sun. April 16, 2008. AS 1/20/14~
In Rome, Reuters reported Jacques Diouf, head of the ~UNFAO~ United
AND
a global contagion, leaving no country — developed or otherwise — unscathed."

C. Systemic poverty outweighs nuke war.

SPINA 2K

~Stephanie Urso Spina, Ph.D. Candidate in Social/Personality Psychology at the Graduate School of the City University of New York. "Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society". pp. 201. AS 1/3/14~
This sad fact is not limited to the United States.  Globally, 18 million
AND
weak and the poor every year of every decade, throughout the world. 

D. Warming causes extinction. :O (really)

TICKELL 08

~Oliver Tickell, Climate Researcher. The Guardian, 8-11. "On a planet 4C hotter, all we can prepare for is extinction". http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/aug/11/climatechange. DDA~
We need to get prepared for four degrees of global warming, Bob Watson told
AND
warming caused by human emissions could propel us towards a similar hothouse Earth. 

UNDERVIEW 1 IS AFC
The negative must accepts the aff’s
AND
utility calculus.

UNDERVIEW 2 IS RVIs
Aff gets RVI’s.

1. The 6 minute 2NR time split and CX checks.
   2. Theory nullifies 6 minutes of AC time making the debate structurally impossible with
   AND
   right to adapt. 

Thus, I affirm.

Tournament: Harvard Invitational | Round: 1 | Opponent: - | Judge: -

I affirm.

1. Presume aff to compensate for negative time skew, proven by the 6 neg bias  on a sample size of over 30 thousand rounds, and the ability to select their advocacy based on the AC.

2. SEC 12 defines resource extraction as:

• • ~US Security and Exchange Commission, 2012 "Disclosure of Payments by Resource Extraction Issuers," http://www.sec.gov/info/smallbus/secg/resource-extraction-small-entity-compliance-guide.htm. PC~
    To determine whether it meets the definition of "resource extraction issuer," an issuer
    AND
    not intended to capture activities that are ancillary or preparatory to commercial development.
    AND, I will defend changes and limitations to the protection of oil, natural gas, and minerals.

I value morality. The standard is maximizing expected well-being.

1. The use of "should" in the resolution implies the debate is solely about policies established by governmental means.

ERICSON

~Jon M. Ericson, Dean Emeritus of the College of Liberal Arts @ Caltech. "The Debaters Guide". Third Edition, p. 4. AS 12/22/13~
The Proposition of Policy: Urging Future Action In policy propositions, each topic contains
AND
compelling reasons for an audience to perform the future action that you propose.

Policy-making entails util. 

WOLLER

~Gary Woller, "An Overview by Gary Woller". A Forum on the Role of Environmental Ethics. pp. 10. AS 12/5/13~
Appeals to a priori moral principles, such as environmental preservation, also often fail
AND
though perhaps at times a necessary, basis for public policy in a democracy

2. is epistemology. Morality is constrained by naturalism – non-naturalistic theories are epistemically inaccessible.

PAPINEAU

~David Papineau, Professor of Philosophy of Science in the Department of Philosophy @ King’s College London. "Naturalism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (SEP). http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/naturalism**. AS 1/8/14~
G.E. Moore’s famous ’open question’ argument is designed to show that
AND
would inevitably commit us to the absurdity of strong overdetermination. ~11~

Pleasure and pain are universally felt and experienced by humans.

NAGEL

~Thomas Nagel, Law 26 Philosophy Professor @ NYU. "The View From Nowhere". 1989. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~~. AS 7/22/13~
I shall defend the unsurprising claim that sensory pleasure is good and pain ~is
AND
such cases. There can be no reason to reject the appearances here.

3. Obligations of all states are grounded in the interest of the well being of citizens because the existence of the state cedes authority to util.

KENNAN

~George Kennan, Professor Emeritus @ Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies. "Morality and Foreign Policy". Foreign Affairs, Volume 64 No. 2. pp. 205-218. 1985. AS 1/1/14~
Second, let us recognize that the functions, commitments and moral obligations of governments
AND
need it accept any moral reproach for acting on the basis of them.
And, prefer agent-specific justifications because different actors have different obligations. For example, it is immoral for a citizen to cut someone up, but it is the obligation of a surgeon.

MY ADVOCACY
Is that the Republic of Ecuador and the Republic of Peru will halt plans for the 11^th round of oil development in the Yasuni National Park and in Northern Peru. Fiat solves the link to legal violations. I am willing to alter or clarify any parts of my advocacy so no theory or T violations unless they check in CX.

TWIST 14 clarifies the advocacy.

~Bill Twist, Co-Founder @Pachamama Alliance. Writer @ Bioneers. "Stopping Oil Exploration in the Ecuadorian Amazon". 2014. AS 2/1/14~
Just as global warming is heating up the planet, events are heating up in
AND
models that will sustain the rainforest, the native peoples and the world.

AND, Northern Peru is not protected. 

BASS ET. AL 10

~Margot S. Bass, Matt Finer, Clinton N. Jenkins, Holger Kreft, Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia, Shawn F. Mccracken. "Global Conservation Significance of Ecuador’s Yasuní National Park". January 19, 2010. PLoSONE. AS 2/14/14~
To the west of Yasuní are the foothills of the Andes, where the species
AND
, ~31~, suggesting that its legal designation has significant conservation value.

ADVANTAGE ONE IS BIODIVERSITY
A. Proposed oil drilling is the biggest threat to the most biodiverse area in the world – Yasuni is a hotspot.

CLIPPARD 10

~Lee Clippard, Peter English, Matt Finer. "Scientists Identify Ecuador’s Yasuní National Park As One of Most Biodiverse Places on Earth". Jan. 19, 2010. http://www.utexas.edu/news/2010/01/19/ecuador_biodiversity/. DDA~
AUSTIN, Texas — A team of scientists has documented that Yasuní National Park,
AND
rainforest conditions as climate change-induced drought intensifies in the eastern Amazon."

B. The plan prevents deforestation and the loss of biodiversity in Yasuní. 

WARNAR 2

~Lavinia Warnars, Master Thesis in Social and Political Sciences of the Environment @ Radboud University. "The Yasuni-ITT Initiative: An International Environmental Equity Mechanism?". January 2010. http://www.mdgfund.org/sites/default/files/ENV_STUDY_Ecu_the20Yasuni20ITT20initiative_0.pdf. AS 1/11/14~
It protects biodiversity and indigenous peoples: Biodiversity  loss  is  prevented  by  guaranteeing  the  protection  
AND
of one million hectares of forest owned by small landholders will be established. 

C. Biodiversity loss in specific hotspots causes extinction. 

HOWARD 11

~Howard, Lead of the Ecosystem Service and Poverty Alleviation Project @ Wageningen University Dept. of Social Sciences. "Tipping Points and Biodiversity Change: Consequences for Human Wellbeing and Challenges for Science and Policy". March 2011. AS 1/20/14 s/o to AT3~
In the 20 th century, we became aware that the fate of biodiversity and
AND
areas in re-sponse to climate change (Lovejoy 26 Hannah 2005).

4. disease prolif infects and kills millions of indigenous peoples every year.

BUTLER 04

~Rhett Butler, "Impact of Deforestation—Species Loss, Extinction, and Disease". http://rainforests.mongabay.com/0904.htm. 2004. AS 1/20/14~
The emergence of tropical diseases and outbreaks of new diseases, including nasty hemorrhagic fevers
AND
can unknowingly carry the pathogen home to their native countries around the world.

ADVANTAGE TWO IS CLIMATE CHANGE
A. The plan solves for global warming – the plan prevents a significant amount of CO2 emissions, key to long term solvency.

WARNAR 3

~Lavinia Warnars, Master Thesis in Social and Political Sciences of the Environment @ Radboud University. "The Yasuni-ITT Initiative: An International Environmental Equity Mechanism?". January 2010. http://www.mdgfund.org/sites/default/files/ENV_STUDY_Ecu_the20Yasuni20ITT20initiative_0.pdf. AS 1/11/14~
It reduces CO2 emissions: It combats global warming as it ~the plan~
AND
.T.), or is equivalent to Ecuadors own emissions for 13 years.

B. Warming in less industrialized economies causes famine, disease, and resource wars – empirically proven, and the impact is systemic. 

LEAN 2

~Geoffrey Lean, Environment Editor for The Independent. "Wars of the World: How Global Warming Puts 60 Nations At Risk". http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/climate-change/wars-of-the-world-how-global-warming-puts-60-nations-at-risk-442788.html. AS 1/11/14~
Scores of countries face war for scarce land, food and water as global warming
AND
our environment, but as an immediate threat to our security and prosperity".

Food crises and starvation and poverty trigger global wars – UN confirms.

HUME 08

~Stephen Hume, Senior Writer for the Vancouver Sun. "World Food Crisis Threatens Rich Nations (That’s Us), Too". Vancouver Sun. April 16, 2008. AS 1/20/14~
In Rome, Reuters reported Jacques Diouf, head of the ~UNFAO~ United
AND
a global contagion, leaving no country — developed or otherwise — unscathed."

C. Systemic poverty outweighs even nuclear war and kills millions. I control probability.

SPINA 2K

~Stephanie Urso Spina, Ph.D. Candidate in Social/Personality Psychology at the Graduate School of the City University of New York. "Smoke and Mirrors: The Hidden Context of Violence in Schools and Society". pp. 201. AS 1/3/14~
This sad fact is not limited to the United States.  Globally, 18 million
AND
weak and the poor every year of every decade, throughout the world. 

D. Extinction. 

TICKELL 08

~Oliver Tickell, Climate Researcher. The Guardian, 8-11. "On a planet 4C hotter, all we can prepare for is extinction". http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/aug/11/climatechange. DDA~
We need to get prepared for four degrees of global warming, Bob Watson told
AND
warming caused by human emissions could propel us towards a similar hothouse Earth. 

ADVANTAGE THREE IS THE INDIGENOUS

1. Failure to enact the plan results in the destruction of native communities residing in the Yasuni area. Link turns ethics and colonialism NC’s.

ABBOT 13

~Thomas Abbot, Research Associate @ Council on Hemispheric Affairs". September 17th, 2013. 
http://www.coha.org/oil-drilling-in-ecuadors-yasuni-national-park-correas-drive-towards-development-at-any-price/. AS 1/20/14~
The development also risks interfer~es~ing with the lands and livelihoods of
AND
in the park. Any contact could lead to destruction for these communities.

2. Local groups are resisting the new measures with anger– only the plan will solve for the oppression of the indigenous. This is also attitudinal inherency – people want the plan to pass.

ALVARO 13

~Mercedes Alvaro, Writer @ Wall Street Journal. "Indigenous Groups Protest Ecuador Oil-Drilling Plans". October 21st, 2013. Wall Street Journal Online Edition. http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702303902404579150014125424966. AS 1/20/14~
Leaders of indigenous groups from Ecuador’s Amazon region said Monday they won’t allow new oil
AND
voice heard," said Patricia Gualinga, a leader of the Sarayacu ethnic group

UNDERVIEW 1 IS AFC
The negative must accept
AND
lol this is the end of my afc underview.

UNDERVIEW 2 IS RVIs

Thus, I affirm.

Tournament: Needham State Quals | Round: 1 | Opponent: - | Judge: -

Lay AC

I affirm and offer the following observation: the resolution is a question of whether political conditions on humanitarian aid are unjust. Thus, any reason why it is unjust is sufficient to affirm because the negative must prove that it is just in all cases. This means that if I prove any one instance in which conditions on aid are unjust, you can affirm. Humanitarian aid is defined by GHA as:
Global Humanitarian Assistance, a Developmental Initiative, http://www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/data-guides/defining-humanitarian-aid. AS 7/26/13
’Humanitarian aid’ is aid  … ogistics and communications).

I value justice, as defined as giving each their due, because the resolution questions whether placing political conditions on humanitarian aid is just or not. First, as a starting point for morality, all moral frameworks assume the inherent self-worth and agency of people as grounds for constraining action, otherwise morality would have no reason to require anything. Warren Quinn writes:
Quinn, Warren S. Actions, Intentions, and Consequences: The Doctrine of Doing and Allowing. The Philosophical Review, Vol. 98, No. 3 (Jul., 1989). JSTOR. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2185021
A person is constituted … cell in the collective whole.

Second, following absolute side constraints such as deontology is the only way life can have value. F. M. Kamm writes:
F.M. Kamm. "Harming Some to Save Others". Philosophical Studies v57, 1989. pp. 254. AS 3/14/14
This point is connected … represents the truth. 29
Therefore, absent side constraints against harming people’s self worth, people’s lives lose all value since they would not be valuable enough to prohibit death, making absolute moral standards a prerequisite to other ethics like utilitarianism. Moreover, people’s lives will be happier in the world of side constraints since people will feel empowered, inviolable, and respected.

Thus, the value criterion is respect for fundamental human worth. The thesis of the affirmative is that placing political conditions on humanitarian aid violates the inherent worth of individuals.

CONTENTION ONE: Placing political conditions on humanitarian aid violates the autonomy of the people receiving aid. David Chandler writes:
David Chandler, School of Social Sciences, Humanities, and Languages at the University of Westminster. "The Road to Military Humanitarianism: How the Human Rights NGOs Shaped a New Humanitarian Agenda". Human Rights Quarterly, Volume 23, No. 3. August 2001. AS 3/14/14
The political restrictions … upon by external agencies.

CONTENTION TWO: Placing political conditions on humanitarian aid is a form of colonialism, which uses people as a means to an end through establishment, exploitation, acquisition, and domination. Western values are imposed on countries receiving aid, and political conditions on humanitarian aid are used by donor countries only to further political goals rather than to help the countries. Only removing conditionality on aid allows for these people to live free of domination. Fiona Fox writes:
Fiona Fox, Catholic Aid for Overseas Development. "New Humanitarianism: Does it Provide a Moral Banner for the 21st Century?" Disasters, 2001. pp. 275-289. AS 3/14/14
It is not possible to … defenders of universal decencies (1998).

CONTENTION THREE: Placing political conditions on humanitarian aid means that the aid has become
AND
an end, rather than as ends in themselves. Mark Duffield writes:
Mark Duffield, "Governing the Borderlands: Decoding the Power of Aid". Overseas Development Institute, Vol. 25, Rev. 4. AS 3/14/14
The reuniting of aid … geo-political periphery’ (30–31).

UNDERVIEW TO THE AFFIRMATIVE

1. Conditionality is unenforceable. Professor Ravi Kanbur writes:
   Ravi Kanbur ~Cornell University~, "Aid, Conditionality, and Debt in Africa", Finn Tarp (ed), Foreign Aid and Development: Lessons Learnt and Directions for he Future, Routledge, 2000. AS 3/14/14
   The key point … mean a double whammy for the poor.

2. Conditionality fails, donors have incentive to not enforce the aid. There is never a guarantee it will even succeed. Professor Ravi Kanbur writes:
Ravi Kanbur ~Cornell University~, "Aid, Conditionality, and Debt in Africa", Finn Tarp (ed), Foreign Aid and Development: Lessons Learnt and Directions for he Future, Routledge, 2000. AS 3/14/14
But in other instances … been in play.

Tournament: Malcolm A Bump Invitational | Round: 1 | Opponent: - | Judge: -

Desert AC

I value morality.

1. Morality exists to regulate our actions towards others. If any moral code is not motivational then there is no reason to do what is right and that code merely fails to escape the skeptical conclusion. Agents can only be motivated by their own desires; not the external desires of another.

RACHELS 1

~James Rachels, "Punishment and Desert." Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1997. p. 470-479. http://www.jamesrachels.org/punanddes.pdf-http://www.jamesrachels.org/punanddes.pdf AS~
To these reasons a third may be added. Morality includes (some would say
AND
for being moral that is required for the whole system to be effective.

Thus, motivational internalism controls the internal link to any system of ethics; lack of motivation means that there is no reason an agent would adhere to the rules of morality and morality fails as a guide to action.

2. Only the concept of desert allows individuals to control how they are treated by others.

RACHELS 2

First, acknowledging deserts is a way of granting people the power to determine their
AND
and dependent on coercion or charity for any good treatment they might receive.

3. Political systems must have restrictions on liberty. Crime harms societies as a whole, not just individuals.

BRADLEY 03

~Gerard Bradley, "Retribution: The Central Aim of Punishment". Harvard Journal of Law and Public Policy. 2003. AS~
An important conclusion from these premises is that justice requires individuals to accept the pattern
AND
remain inside the ~law~ legally required pattern 8¶ of restraint.

Thus, systems of just deserts restore the moral equilibrium disturbed by a criminal offense.

MORRIS 68

~Herbert Morris, Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Law Emeritus at UCLA and nationally recognized philosopher of law, "The Monist" Volume 52, No. 4 Persons and Punishment, Hegeler Institute, JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27902099-http://www.jstor.org/stable/27902099, October, 1968~
Third, it is just to punish those who have violated the rules and caused
AND
, thus increasing the incidence of persons taking what they do not deserve.

Equality is an apriori requirement of systems of justice because is no a priori moral distinction between agents, so all agents must be treated equally.

And, two additional justifications:

1. AGENCY.

2. CULPABILITY.

Thus the standard is maintaining a system of just deserts through the accuracy of decision making in the criminal justice system. I contend that ACP does not respect just deserts.

Part 1 is Corporations.

A. Inherency: In the status quo, corporations are granted attorney-client privilege.

SEXTON 1

~John Sexton, New York University Law Review. "A Post-Upjohn Consideration of the Attorney-Client Privilege." 1982. AS~
It is not self-evident that the attorney-client privilege available to individuals
AND
-client privilege in the Upjohn case underscores this statement. ~FN22~

ACP is a procedural barrier. It decreases efficiency and the accuracy of court decisions.

THORNBURGH 09

~Dick Thornburgh, "WAIVER OF THE ATTORNEY-CLIENT PRIVILEGE: A BALANCED APPROACH." Kirkpatrick 26 Lockhart Nicholson Graham LLP. 2009. AS~
The requirement that a corporation waive attorney-client privilege to be deemed "cooperative
AND
she otherwise might be, and valuable information and insights may be lost.

ACP has a trivial effect on the amount and accuracy of information given to attorneys.

SEXTON 2

~John Sexton, New York University Law Review. "A Post-Upjohn Consideration of the Attorney-Client Privilege." 1982. AS~
A corporation’s activities undeniably tend to involve many more legal questions, larger sums of
AND
extension of the privilege to corporations induces little additional information for the attorney.

B. Solvency: Removing ACP solves for procedural barriers.

SEXTON 3

~John Sexton, New York University Law Review. "A Post-Upjohn Consideration of the Attorney-Client Privilege." 1982. AS~
To the extent that privileges do impede an adversary’s ~the~ quest for information
AND
often than they should simply because of lack of information. ~FN127~

Inaccuracy leads to wrongful convictions.

FURMAN 1

~H. Patrick Furman, Colorado District Attorneys Council. http://lawweb.colorado.edu/profiles/pubpdfs/furman/03SeptTCL-Furman.pdf-http://lawweb.colorado.edu/profiles/pubpdfs/furman/03SeptTCL-Furman.pdf**. The Colorado Lawyer, Colorado Bar Association. 2003. AS~
Wrongful convictions are a concern of prosecutors and defense lawyers, liberals and conservatives,
AND
of innocent people across the country in prisons and even on death rows.

NEXT, it’s a systemic impact, affirmed by the people and the system.

FURMAN 2

~H. Patrick Furman, Colorado District Attorneys Council. http://lawweb.colorado.edu/profiles/pubpdfs/furman/03SeptTCL-Furman.pdf-http://lawweb.colorado.edu/profiles/pubpdfs/furman/03SeptTCL-Furman.pdf**. The Colorado Lawyer, Colorado Bar Association. 2003. AS~
A Harris Poll of Americans taken in 2000 revealed that 94 percent of those surveyed
AND
inmates on death row in Illinois (approximately 8 percent) were innocent. 

Part 2 is Individuals.

A. Inherency: Status quo policies hold back lawyers from helping convicted innocents.

HASBANI 10

~Inbal Hasbani, J.D. Candidate, Northwestern University School of Law, May 2010; B.A., Brown University, 2003. "When The Law Preserves Injustice: Issues Raised By A Wrongful Incarceration Exception To Attorney-Client Confidentiality". The Journal of Criminal Law 26 Criminology, Northwestern University. Volume 100, No. 1. AS~
What should an ~if an~ attorney do if he obtains information from a
AND
due to~ their ethical obligations under the Model Rules of Professional Conduct. 

Situationally verified.

FREEDMAN 96

~Monroe H. Freedman, "The Life-Saving Exception to Confidentiality: Restating Law without the Was, the Will Be, or the Ought to Be". L.A. L. Rev. 1631 (1996). AS~
An extreme-indeed, bizarre-example of this tendency to overlook the ought
AND
rules and described them as "very important" and "squeaky traditional."

B. Solvency:

Lawyers will come forward absent the confidentiality requirement of ACP.

HASBANI 2

~Inbal Hasbani, J.D. Candidate, Northwestern University School of Law, May 2010; B.A., Brown University, 2003. "When The Law Preserves Injustice: Issues Raised By A Wrongful Incarceration Exception To Attorney-Client Confidentiality". The Journal of Criminal Law 26 Criminology, Northwestern University. Volume 100, No. 1. AS~
Although I do not explore the evidentiary hurdles produced by a wrongful incarceration exception in
AND
require attorneys to come forward in such a situation may reduce that threat. 

C: Impact:

And wrongful conviction is a harm under any standard.

MOLITERNO 11

~James E. Moliterno, Professor @ Washington and Lee University School of Law. "Rectifying Wrongful Convictions: May a Lawyer Reveal Her Client’s Confidneces to Rectify the Wrongful Conviction of Another? (A Roundtable Discussion of the ABA’s Standards for Criminal Litigation)". 38 Hastings Const. L.Q. 811 2010-2011. AS~
Is there ~is~ harm that comes to all wrongfully convicted persons? Doubtless
AND
of the wrongful conviction. The spectrum has a full range in between.

UNDERVIEW

1. Constitutional NSA policies in the status quo violate attorney-client privilege.

OPSAHL 6/21

~Kurt Opsahl, Senior Staff Attorney @ Electronic Frontier Foundation. "In Depth Review: New NSA Documents Expose How Americans Can Be Spied On Without a Warrant." Electronic Frontier Foundation. June 21, 2013. AS~
The ~ACP~ attorney client privilege is a long-standing feature of American
AND
about preventing that communication from being used as evidence in a criminal case.

2. Claims of chilling are false – people do not look to evidentiary standards when deciding to divulge relevant information.

EDWARD 03

~Edward J. Imwinkelried, Prof. of Law @ UC Davis. ?"Essay: The New Wigmore: An Essay on Rethinking the Foundation of Evidentiary Privileges." Boston University Law Review. 2003. AS~
Empirical studies intensify the doubts about the validity of the behavioral premise underlying the instrumental
AND
does not revolve around the courtroom to the extent that Dean Wigmore assumed.

Tournament: Malcolm A Bump Invitational | Round: 2 | Opponent: - | Judge: -

AC vs Hunter JC

I value morality. The standard is maximizing expected well-being.

1. Respect for the equality of persons mandates consequentialism.

CUMMISKEY 96

~David Cummiskey. "Kantian Consequentialism". P. 142. Oxford University Press. 1996.~
If I sacrifice some for the sake of others, I do not use them
AND
, then equal consideration dictates that one may sacrifice some to save many.

Only util respects equality because it gives precedence to the considerations of the many over the few. Other theories prioritize the few, treating people unequally. Equality is an axiomatic assumption of morality. If util cannot assign value to actions, morality obligates us to equality.

2. All moral systems collapse into an evaluation of end states.

3. Ought is defined as utilitarianism.

HARRIS 10

~Harris, Sam. The Moral Landscape: How Science Can Determine Human Values (2010)~
Many moral skeptics piously cite Hume’s is/ought distinction as though it were well
AND
can so fully ignore the link between morality and human well-being.

If fairness is the voter then theory comes before.

A. Ground

B. Predictability

C. Education

D. Resolvability

Fairness is a voter.

4. Moral uncertainty means we default to preventing extinction.

BOSTROM 01

~Nick Bostrom, 2001 Professor of Philosophy, Oxford University ~Journal of Evolution and Technology, Vol. 9, March 2002. First version: 2001 March, JSTOR~
These reflections on moral uncertainty suggest~s~ an alternative, complementary way of
AND
to increase the probability that the future will contain a lot of value.

Any risk of util means extinction is bad for the purposes of decision-making.

BOSTROM 2

There will be some types of putative existential risks for which the main uncertainty is
AND
X is bad in at least the subjective sense relevant to decision making.

I advocate for the continuation of status quo national security exceptions to the attorney-client privilebe. RICE AND SAUL 02 clarify:

~Paul R. Rice 26 Benjamin Parlin Saul. "Is the War on Terrorism a War on Attorney-Client Privilege?" Criminal Justice Magazine, Volume 17, Issue 2. Summer 2002. AS~
Although the ~ACP~ attorney-client privilege has been touted as being absolute
AND
striking its own balance, and sitting in judgment of its own actions.

ADVANTAGE ONE IS TERRORISM.

A. Uniqueness

Terrorism is on the verge of resurgence; Middle Eastern destabilization is at risk.

NAKHLEH 10/26

~Emile Nakhleh, Former Director of Political Islam Strategic Analysis Program @ CIA. "International Analysis: Resurgent Regional Terrorism — A Sinister Threat". October 26th, 2013. Peruvian Times. http://www.peruviantimes.com/26/international-analysis-resurgent-regional-terrorism-a-sinister-threat/20531/-http://www.peruviantimes.com/26/international-analysis-resurgent-regional-terrorism-a-sinister-threat/20531/. 10/26/13. AS~
The global significance and relevance of Al Qaeda has been questioned since the death of
AND
areas, making it impossible for civilians to turn to officials for help.

B. Link

1. Terrorist groups have been trained to use ACP to relay sensitive information.

RUZENSKI 05

~Katherine Ruzenski, "Balancing Fundamental Civil Liberties and the Need for Increased Homeland Security: The Attorney-Client Privilege after 9/11." St. John’s Journal of Legal Commentary, Issue 506. 2005. AS~
Much like drug-kingpins, and mob consiglieres, al-Qaeda ha~
AND
the Bureau of Prisons Regulation under the advisement of Attorney General John Ashcroft.

2. Terrorists use the confidentiality requirement of the ACP to communicate with other terrorists..

YIN 09

~Tung Yin, University of Iowa College of Law. "Boumediene and Lawfare". University of Iowa Legal Studies Research Paper, ~2309-11. March 2009. AS~
Using an attorney to pass secret messages to other Al-Qaeda members distorts the
AND
, thereby ensuring that the lawyer can give the most accurate legal advice.

C. Impact

1. Unchecked terrorism causes extinction.

ALEXANDER 03

~Yonah Alexander, "Terrorism Myths and Realities". Washington Times, Professor and Director of Inter-University For Terrorism Studies. AS~
Last week’s brutal suicide bombings in Baghdad and Jerusalem have once again illustrated dramatically that
AND
) with its serious implications concerning national, regional and global security concerns. 

2. A nuclear terrorist attack is the most likely existential threat.

RHODES 09

~Richard Rhodes, Visiting Scholar at Harvard/MIT, Affiliate of the center for International Security at Stanford. "Reducing the nuclear threat: The argument for public safety". December 14th, 2009. AS~
The response was very different among nuclear and national security experts when Indiana Republican Sen
AND
nothing to do with those attacks in the name of sending a message.

Nuclear terrorism will cause global nuclear war, leading to extinction.

SID-AHMED

~Mohamed Sid-Ahmed, Egyptian Political analyst for the Al-Ahram Newspaper. Op-Ed Article. Al-Ahram Online. August 26th, 2004. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/705/op5.htm-http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/705/op5.htm. AS~
A nuclear attack by terrorists will be much more critical than Hiroshima and Nagazaki,
AND
When nuclear pollution infects the whole planet, we will all be losers.

D. Solvency

1. Only prioritizing truth seeking solves to prevent the spread of information.

ASHCROFT 01

~John Ashcroft, Attorney General of the United States. "Department Of Justice Oversight: Preserving Our Freedoms While Defending Against Terrorism." Senate Hearing 107-704, US Government Printing Office. December 6, 2001. AS~
Thanks to the vigilance of law enforcement and the patience  of the American people,
AND
an unprecedented worldwide effort to detect, disrupt, and dismantle terrorist organizations.

2. Empirically verified; violations of privacy rights for national security purposes have been successful.

RUZENSKI 2

~Katherine Ruzenski, "Balancing Fundamental Civil Liberties and the Need for Increased Homeland Security: The Attorney-Client Privilege after 9/11." St. John’s Journal of Legal Commentary, Issue 506. 2005. AS~
The civil libertarians first argue that the procedures used by the Justice Department and the
AND
contact and involvement with their terrorist friends who have not yet been caught.

UNDERVIEW

1. Constitutional NSA policies in the status quo violate attorney-client privilege.

OPSAHL 6/21

~Kurt Opsahl, Senior Staff Attorney @ Electronic Frontier Foundation. "In Depth Review: New NSA Documents Expose How Americans Can Be Spied On Without a Warrant." Electronic Frontier Foundation. June 21, 2013. AS~
The ~ACP~ attorney client privilege is a long-standing feature of American
AND
about preventing that communication from being used as evidence in a criminal case.

Tournament: Bronx Invitational | Round: 1 | Opponent: All Aff Rounds | Judge: 

Rawls AC

Objective moral claims are impossible because they all rest on subjective assumptions that make impartial views impossible.

YOUNG 1

Iris Marion Young. and#34;Justice and the Politics of Difference.and#34; Princeton University Press. 1990.
Impartial reason, as we have seen, also generates a dichotomy between reason and
AND
as Nagel expresses it, the impartial view is a view from nowhere.

To avoid this regress into subjectivism we adopt a moral theory that is based on the consent of each individual actor.

YOUNG 2

The alternative to a moral theory founded on the assumption of impartial reason, then
AND
impartial starting point in order to get universality out of the moral dialogue. 

Thus the standard is consistency with the Rawlsian veil of ignorance.

The original position would ensure that individuals would want to guarantee basic goods for themselves, thus impacts to making decisions with the intent to benefit the least well off link to the standard.

FREEMAN 1

Freeman, Samuel. and#34;Original Position.and#34; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/original-position/23ArgForDifPri-http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/original-position/.
It is often claimed that Rawls’s parties are and#34;risk-averse;and#34; otherwise they
AND
may be available in a society governed entirely by the principle of utility.

Additionally, prefer the framework - 

First, personhood

Second, equality

Consistency with the veil of ignorance is most consistent with equality since you know nothing about your social position,

FREEMAN 2

The remedy for such biased judgments is to redefine the initial situation. Rather than
AND
of equality as equal respect for moral persons (cf. CP 255).

Text: The United States will adopt Australia’s Compulsory Voting system.

Ornstein clarifies:

Norman Ornstein, Ph.D political scientist and resident scholar at the American Enterprise Institute- a Washington DC think tank, also has been published by Washington Post and several other magazine, also named one of the top 100 Global thinkers by Foreign Policy for and#34;diagnosing America’s political dysfunctionand#34; and has written several books on America’s political dysfunction, and#34;Vote—or Elseand#34;, Source- The New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/10/opinion/10ornstein.html?_r=126, August 10, 2006,
So what can be done? Here’s a possible solution to the nation’s partisan
AND
the system has also instilled the idea that voting is a societal obligation. 

I will defend CV in all democracies if they ask in CX.

-

Subpoint A: CV reintegrates disenfranchised voters. Two warrants.

1. Turnout.

U.S. turnout is low and CV solves. Empirically verified by Australia.

WHITE 03

Alex White, national marketing advisor working in the labour movement with a decade of policy, campaigns and public relations experience. His background is complemented by professional and leadership roles in the trade union movement, chariies, environmental and political organisations, and#34;In Defense of Compulsory Voting, source- NewMatilda, https://newmatilda.com/2013/01/14/defence-compulsory-voting, January 14, 2003
The experience in other countries like the UK and USA, and in Australia before
AND
24 elections since 1946, voter participation has averaged above 94 per cent.

Analysis of introducing and abolishing CV confirms solvency is causation not correlation.

ENGELEN 07

Bart Engelen, 2007. Research Assistant of the Fund for Scientific Research. and#34;Why Compulsory Voting Can Enhance Democracyand#34; Palgrave Macmillan Ltd,
This method, however, encounters the problem that the potential impact of compulsory voting
AND
reinforce each other (Keaney and Rogers, 2006, 18–20). 

Institutional remedies solve better than raising education and political interest.

LIJPHART 97

Arend Lijphart, March 1997. Research Professor of Political Science, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA. and#34;Unequal Participation: Democracy’s Unresolved Dilemmaand#34; The American Political Science Review
Voting participation depends on many factors, including the salience of the issues-note
AND
W. Jackman (1987), and Mark N. Franklin (1996). 

2. Alienation

CV makes nonvoters interested in politics

HILL 1

Lisa Hill, 2004. Senior Research Fellow, Politics Discipline, School of History and Politics, University of Adelaide. and#34;COMPULSORY VOTING IN AUSTRALIA: A BASIS FOR A ’BEST PRACTICE’ REGIMEand#34; Federal Law Review
It is not necessarily the case that non-voters are less interested in
AND
laws are an extremely effective way of by changing entrenched behaviour. 

That creates a rippling effect, resulting in even more political engagement.

SHINEMAN

Victoria Anne, and#34;Isolating the Effect of Compulsory Voting Laws on Political Sophistication: Exploiting Intra-National Variation in Mandatory Voting Laws Between the Austrian Provincesand#34;, Visiting Scholar @ Center for the Study of Democratic Politics at Princeton University, 2009.
Lastly, all of these mechanisms likely create a rippling effect, as
AND
the probability that politically unengaged people will encounter political conversations. 

Blank ballots solve for alienation of abstainers.

HILL 2

Professor Lisa Hill, 2010. ARC Fellow in Politics at the University of Adelaide. and#34;On the Justifiability of Compulsory Voting: Reply to Lever.and#34;
Even if people only turn up to vote for ’none of the above’ this
AND
, this would have to change and democracy would be enriched and deepened.

Two impacts:

1. Socioeconomic Inequality

Reintigration results in better representation of the lower class.

CHONG AND OLIVERA 05

Alberto Chong, Inter-American Development Bank AND Mauricio Olivera, George Mason University May 2005. and#34;On Compulsory Voting and Income Inequality in a Cross-Section of Countriesand#34; Inter- American Development Bank Research Department,
As explained above, the case for compulsory voting is not so much based on
AND
lowest and highest of five education levels is typical (Powell, 1986).

CV is consistent with the maximin solution because it protects the weakest in a democracy.

LACROIX 07

Justine Lacroix, Université libre de Bruxelles, 2007. and#34;A Liberal Defence of Compulsory Votingand#34; Political Studies Association
One obviously does not need to adhere to neo-republican theories to consider that
AND
the powers that be than intermediary bodies or associations bent on particular interests.

2. Racism

The Voting Rights Act decision suppresses voter rights.

WASHINGTON POST 7/15

Washington Post Editorial Board 7/15/13 and#34;North Carolina law takes war on voting rights to a new lowand#34; http://articles.washingtonpost.com/2013-08-15/opinions/41412504_1_voting-rights-act-new-law-voter-suppression
IN THE wake of the Supreme Court’s Shelby v. Holder decision, which gutted
AND
-olds, who could previously register to vote before they turned 18.

Voter suppression deters black voters but is solved by participation.

WINBURN 5/25

Jonathan Winburn, May 23-25,2013Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science at the University of Mississippi. and#34;Growing Up with Jim Crow: The Lingering Effect of Racism on African-American Voter Turnout in the Statesand#34;
As blacks became more widely involved in American politics following the Voting Rights Act of
AND
habitual involvement or denied the experiences that lead to the persistence of participation.

Voting is the only check against state power.

HILL 3

Professor Lisa Hill, 2010. ARC Fellow in Politics at the University of Adelaide. and#34;On the Justifiability of Compulsory Voting: Reply to Lever.and#34;
Voting not only protects our material interests; it also protects our rights. J
AND
practice, things may be different, particularly where this right is concerned.
-

Subpoint B: Accessibility

High-income and white precincts are more accessible.

BARRETO ET. AL. 09

Matt A. Barreto University of Washington, Seattle Mara Cohen-Marks Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, California Nathan D. Woods Welch Consulting, Inc., Washington, D.C. September 2009.  and#34;Are All Precincts Created Equal?and#34;
While previous scholarship on minority turnout has examined many facets related to black, Latino
AND
-income and white precincts were about twice as likely to do so.

Compulsory voting promotes a more voter-friendly system.

ENGELEN 2

Bart Engelen, 2007. Research Assistant of the Fund for Scientific Research. and#34;Why Compulsory Voting Can Enhance Democracyand#34; Palgrave Macmillan Ltd, PC/AS
Opponents of compulsory voting refer to the increased tendency of politicians, being assured of
AND
encourages incumbent governments to protect everybody’s interests’ (Hill, 2002b, 88).
-

Subpoint C: CV protects citizens’ ability to protest.

Voting is a uniquely important protest because it guarantees privacy.

HILL 4

Professor Lisa Hill, 2010. ARC Fellow in Politics at the University of Adelaide. and#34;On the Justifiability of Compulsory Voting: Reply to Lever.and#34;
The right to abstain’, says Lever, enables ’the weak, timid and
AND
especially where the disconnection involves such a relatively safe form of political engagement. 

Blank votes provide for a clearer expression of dissatisfaction.

LARDY 04

Heather Lardy, Summer 2004.  University of Aberdeen. and#34;Is there a Right not to Vote?and#34; Oxford Journal of Legal Studies
Brief answers are possible to these claims. Taking the last first, it is
AND
reason to conclude that that freedom should protect a right not to vote.

Tournament: Yale Invitational | Round: 1 | Opponent: All Aff Rounds | Judge: 

EU Plan

PLAN TEXT

The European Parliament will adopt a system of compulsory voting. Abstainers will be fined 2410. I reserve the right to clarify.

Clarification of the advocacy.

MALKOUPOLOU 09

~Anthoula, and#34;Lost Voters: Participation in EU elections and the Case for Compulsory Votingand#34;, CEPS (Center for European Policy Studies), Working Document No. 317, July 2009. AS~
Nevertheless, there are three main reasons why mandatory voting is a particularly appropriate solution
AND
of procedural representation in order to avoid becoming hostage to eccentric political views.

ADVANTAGE ONE IS INCOME INEQUALITY.

The EU needs high turnout to solve for income inequalities.

MALKOUPOLOU 2

~Anthoula, and#34;Lost Voters: Participation in EU elections and the Case for Compulsory Votingand#34;, CEPS (Center for European Policy Studies), Working Document No. 317, July 2009. AS~
Compulsory voting was introduced for the first time on a national scale in Belgium in
AND
that the European Parliament is an elitist establishment is reinforced by abstention itself.

Turnout solves for income redistribution.

SCHAFER 11

~Armin Schafer, Armin Schafer is a researcher at the Max Planck Institute for the Study of Societies, a German research institute in Cologne, Germany. He holds multiple advanced degrees in social science areas, and received his PhD at the University Bremen. He has been with his research institute for 10 years. and#34;Republican Liberty and Compulsory Votingand#34;, Source- Social Science Research Network, http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2018112, November 1, 2011, DDA~
Cross-national studies also show that turnout influences policy outcomes. Hicks and Swank
AND
, these differences could accumulate over time and translate into different policy outcomes.

SOLVENCY

Compulsory voting increases turnout.

CHONG AND OLIVERA 05

~Alberto Chong, Inter-American Development Bank AND Mauricio Olivera, George Mason University May 2005. and#34;On Compulsory Voting and Income Inequality in a Cross-Section of Countriesand#34; Inter- American Development Bank Research Department, PC/AS~
While universal franchise was adopted in many democracies by the end of the nineteenth century
AND
, the number falls to 83 percent and 73 percent, respectively.10
This is empirically verified in multiple countries.

TWO IMPACTS.

1. OPPRESSION

Economic inequalities terminate in the marginalization of the lower class.

FLEURBAEY 04

~Marc Fleurbaey, Woodrow Wilson School, University Center for Human Values. Program on Welfare Economics and Social Justice, Institute for Global Studies, FMSH, Paris. and#34;Poverty As a Form Of Oppressionand#34;. Print. 2004. AS~
There are thus different possible degrees of economic constraint exerted by poverty, which is
AND
thus a source of oppression, at least of the case 2 form.

2. CRIME

Positive casual correlation between violent crime and income inequality exists.

MacEWAN 09

~Arthur MacEwan, Professor Emeritus, Department of Economics, and Senior Fellow, Center for Social Policy, University of Massachusetts Boston, and#34;An End in Itself and a Means to Good Ends: Why Income Equality is Importantand#34;,  http://scholarworks.umb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=102426context=csp_pubs, January 1st, 2009, DDA~
Yet, it is the connection between ~income~ inequality and crimes of violence
AND
the explanation, offered above, regarding the intrinsic value of economic equality.

Crime terminates in immediate deaths and rights violations. Outweighs on timeframe and empirical verification.

UNODC 13

~United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/organized-crime/ and#34;Organized Crimeand#34;. 2013.~
~C~rime threatens peace and human security, violates human rights and undermines
AND
, and more sophisticated, with ever-greater reach around the globe. 

ADVANTAGE TWO IS DEMOCRACY PROMOTION.

Democratic credibility of the EU is being challenged.

MALKOUPOLOU 3

~Anthoula, and#34;Lost Voters: Participation in EU elections and the Case for Compulsory Votingand#34;, CEPS (Center for European Policy Studies), Working Document No. 317, July 2009. AS~
As far as the EU elections are concerned, there are two basic reasons why
AND
to support that package worldwide, it must adhere to these values itself.

CV increases the perception of legitimacy, which is key to democratic credibility.

MALKOUPOLOU 4

~Anthoula, and#34;Lost Voters: Participation in EU elections and the Case for Compulsory Votingand#34;, CEPS (Center for European Policy Studies), Working Document No. 317, July 2009. AS~
In a democratic state, the input from citizens is a fundamental factor of its
AND
urging citizens to vote serves as an excellent tool for deliberation and politicisation.
This significantly increases the ability of the EU to promote democratic ideals. 

And, democracy promotion prevents WMD and nuclear prolif.

DIAMOND 95

~Diamond Hoover Institution. Stanford University. and#34;Promoting Democracy in the 1990’sand#34;. http://www.carnegie.org/sub/pubs/deadly/diam_rpt.html-http://www.carnegie.org/sub/pubs/deadly/diam_rpt.html. 1995. AS~
Nuclear, chemical and biological weapons continue to proliferate. The very source of life
AND
which a new world order of international security and prosperity can be built. 

Nuke war terminates in extinction. Outweighs on reversibility and magnitude.

KATEB

~George, The Inner Ocean: Individualism and Democratic Culture, and#34;Thinking About Human Extinction (1): Nuclear Weapons and Individual Rights,and#34; p. 111-112~
Schell’s work attempts to force on us an acknowledgment that sounds far-fetched and
AND
whatever in a world in which more than one power possesses nuclear weapons. 

FRAMEWORK

I value morality.

The epistemic question of how we derive ethical truths is necessary to determine what those truths are. Pragmatic conceptions of morality are necessary to address questions of moral values. There is no absolute truth – any system of justification devolves into infinite regress. We can always question if we reached truth so default to pragmatism.

JAMES

~William James. and#34;Pragmatism’s Conception of Truthand#34;. Lecture 6 in Pragmatism: A new name for some old ways of thinking. New York: Longman Green and Co (1907): 76-91.~
Truth, as any dictionary will tell you, is a property of certain of
AND
value, unless they had been useful from the outset in this way.

AND, pragmatism implies util.

THUS, the standard is maximizing expected well-being.

AND, additional reasons to prefer util.

1. Epistemology.
   2. States.
   3. Equality.

Ethical agnosticism should lead us to default towards preventing extinction as a meta-constraint on all ethical theories. Thus we should default to maximizing our ability to morally reason and find moral truths.

BOSTROM

Nick Bostrom, 2001 Professor of Philosophy, Oxford University ~Journal of Evolution and Technology, Vol. 9, March 2002. First version: 2001 March, JStor
These reflections on moral uncertainty suggest~s~ an alternative, complementary way of
AND
to increase the probability that the future will contain a lot of value.